{"id":761,"date":"2016-01-20T23:48:36","date_gmt":"2016-01-20T23:48:36","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/eng.moemaka.net\/?p=761"},"modified":"2016-01-20T23:48:36","modified_gmt":"2016-01-20T23:48:36","slug":"khin-maung-saw-misinterpretations-of-burmese-words-in-the-case-of-the-term-kala-kula","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/moemaka.net\/eng\/2016\/01\/khin-maung-saw-misinterpretations-of-burmese-words-in-the-case-of-the-term-kala-kula\/","title":{"rendered":"Khin Maung Saw – (Mis)Interpretations of Burmese Words: In the case of the term Kala (Kula)"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"FreshPaint-0-2015.10.31-11.41.02\"<\/a><\/p>\n

Khin Maung Saw – (Mis)Interpretations of Burmese Words: In the case of the term <\/b>Kala<\/i><\/b> (Kula) \u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

    \n
  1. Introduction: <\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

     <\/p>\n

    “Burma Studies” constitute a relatively small field within the larger field of Southeast Asian Studies. \u00a0In my experience as a Burma scholar of many years I have come to realize that the amount of material written \u00a0in foreign languages about Indonesia and Thailand, especially on language and literature, far exeeds the material avaible on Burma. Moreover, on reading material available in foreign languages, I have noticed that some information is either incorrect or misleading. \u00a0This wrong or misleading information is often quoted and disseminated by subsequent authors, leading to a situation whereby it eventually acquires the status of being true and correct.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    There is, in fact, a great deal of material available on the subject of Burmese language and literature; however, it exists only in Burmese. \u00a0For most non-Burmese Burma Scholars these standard sources are, unfortunately, beyond their reach. \u00a0Unable to speak, read and write Burmese fluently they are obliged to rely only on materials written in one of the European languages.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    To emphasize this point I would like to cite the Burma scholar U Tin Htway, who is one of the most experienced Burmese intellectuals teaching abroad, who writes: “For the scholars and students of Burmese language and literature, the field of study is enormous and the resources are abundant. \u00a0But, for non-Burmese scholars, say, almost all, the abundant resources of Burmese inscriptions and classical Burmese literatures are, seemingly, beyond their limit, even up to this very day. \u00a0Most of them, if not nearly all, had done their work with “hearsay knowledge”, through the informant(s) and unfortunately, for many information they got, they were not able to scrutinize or to check with standard Burmese literary sources, which are well-established and had existed for centuries now. However, their achievements should not be ignored, not even the ones with dubious merit”.1<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Although some contributions on the subject of Burmese language and literature, written by some Burmese intellectuals in English, do exist, unfortunately, these persons are mainly scholars of English language and literature rather than scholars of Burmese language and literature. \u00a0Hence they are more familiar with the English language and its literature \u00a0than with their mother tongue.2 \u00a0Their contributions have often been referred to by the non-Burmese Burma scholars; as a result, false interpretations, predictions and conclusions occur.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    One specific example is the (mis)interpretation of the Burmese word \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 Kala<\/i> (Kula). \u00a0Though the word had and has a harmless meaning, some non-Burmese Burma Scholars misinterpreted this term and given it an unsavoury meaning. \u00a0In this article I would like to point out its interpretation according to standard Burmese sources, the correct usage of the term used by respected scholars and others as well as misinterpretations used by some scholars unwittingly, as a result of having based their work on \u00a0informants who were not scholars and provided information on the basis of “hearsay knowledge”.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

      \n
    1. Interpretations according to the literature: \u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

       <\/p>\n

      The first hypothesis<\/b> postulates that the word \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 Kala<\/i> (Kula) came from the Pali word \u1000\u102f\u101c Kula<\/i> meaning “noble race” (this is a short form of \u1000\u102f\u101c\u1015\u102f\u1010\u1071 Kula Putta<\/i> which means “son of the noble race”). \u00a0The word was used for the Indians (people from the subcontinent) by the early Buddhist people of Burma (Mons, Burmese, Arakanese, Karens and \u00a0Shans etc.) because the Lord Buddha himself was an Indian.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      Listed below are some literature sources which support this hypothesis:<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (1) The Myanmar Language Commission, Myanmar-English Dictionary, Yangon, 1993, p. 10.<\/p>\n

      \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 \/ kala\/ n 1. <\/b>native of the Indian subcontinent. 2. <\/b>court-card; picture card. adj<\/i><\/b> of foreign origin. See also \u00a0\u101e\u1031\u1018\u1064\u102c [Pali \u1000\u102f\u101c]<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (2) The Myanmar Language Commission, \u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u1021\u1018\u102d\u1013\u102c\u1014\u1039 (Myanmar-Myanmar Dictionary), Yangon, 1991, p. 9<\/p>\n

      \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 \/kla;\/ n<\/b> 1<\/b>‘ \u1021\u102d\u108f\u102d\u1075\u101a\u1010\u102d\u102f\u1000\u1039\u1004\u101a\u1039\u1031\u1012\u101e\u1019\u103d\u101c\u102c\u101e\u1030\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u104b 2<\/b>‘ \u101e\u102c\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1021\u102c\u1038\u103b\u1016\u1004\u1039\u1037 \u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u108f\u102f\u102d\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u104f\u1021\u1031\u1014\u102c\u1000\u1039\u1016\u1000\u1039\u101b\u103d\u102d \u1010\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1038\u108f\u102f\u102d\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103d\u101c\u102c\u101e\u1030\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u104b 3<\/b>‘ \u1005\u1000\u1060\u1034\u1016\u1032\u1010\u103c\u1004\u1039 \u1002\u103a\u1000\u1039\u104a \u1000\u103c\u1004\u1039\u1038\u104a \u1000\u1004\u1039\u1038\u104a \u1016\u1032\u1001\u103a\u1015\u1039\u1010\u102d\u102f\u1094\u1000\u102d\u102f\u1031\u1001\u105a\u1031\u101e\u102c\u1005\u1000\u102c\u1038\u104b \u1014\u101d\u102d – \u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u103b\u1001\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103d \u101c\u102c\u1031\u101e\u102c\u104a \u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u103b\u1001\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103d\u103b\u1016\u1005\u1039\u1031\u101e\u102c\u104b[\u1015\u102b\u104a \u00a0\u1000\u102f\u101c]<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      Translation:<\/b> \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 \/kala\/ n 1<\/b>. people from the Indian subcontinent. 2<\/b>. \u00a0The term generally used for the natives of the countries west of Burma. 3. Jack, Queen and King in the playing cards: adj <\/i><\/b>of foreign origin, foreign made [Pali Kula<\/i>]<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (3) U Wun, \u1010\u1000\u1060\u101e\u102d\u102f\u101c\u1039 \u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u1021\u1018\u102d\u1013\u102c\u1014\u1039\u104a \u1021\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1038 \u1041\u104b \u00a0(The University Burmese-Burmese Dictionary), Rangoon, 1952, vol.1, p. 22.<\/p>\n

      \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 – \u1014\u1036 \u1041\u104a \u1021\u102d\u108f\u102d\u1075\u101a\u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u101e\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u104a \u00a0\u00a0\u1042\u104b \u101e\u102c\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1021\u102c\u1038\u103b\u1016\u1004\u1039\u1037 \u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u108f\u102f\u102d\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u1021\u1031\u1014\u102c\u1000\u1039\u1016\u1000\u1039\u1031\u1012\u101e\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103d\u101c\u102c\u101e\u1030\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u104b \u1014\u101d\u102d – \u00a0\u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u103b\u1001\u102c\u1038\u104c \u103b\u1016\u1005\u1039\u1031\u101e\u102c\u104a \u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u103b\u1001\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103d\u101c\u102c\u1031\u101e\u102c\u104b [ \u1019\u103c\u1014\u1039\u104a \u1002\u101c\u102c\u104b \u1015\u102b\u104a \u00a0\u1000\u102f\u101c]<\/p>\n

      Translation:<\/b> \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 N 1<\/b>. Indians. 2<\/b>. General term for the people who came from west of Burma. ——- adj<\/i><\/b> \u00a0of foreign origin [Mon Gla<\/i>; Pali Kula<\/i>]<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (4) U Hoke Sein, \u00a0\u1015\u102b\u1020\u102d – \u00a0\u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u1021\u1018\u102d\u1013\u102c\u1014\u1039 \u1012\u102f\u1010\u102d\u101a\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1038 (The Pali-Burmese Dictionary), Rangoon, 1956, vol. 2, p. 329.<\/p>\n

      \u1000\u102f\u101c [\u1000\u102f\u101c] (\u1014) \u1021\u1019\u103a\u102d\u1033\u1038\u104b \u103b\u1019\u1010\u1039\u1031\u101e\u102c\u1021\u1019\u103a\u102d\u1033\u1038\u104b \u1021\u102d\u1019\u1039\u104b \u1019\u102d\u1018\u1021\u102d\u1019\u1039\u104b \u1021\u101c\u102f\u1015\u1039\u1021\u1031\u1000\u103c\u107d\u1038\u1012\u102b\u101a\u1000\u102c\u104b<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      Translation:<\/b> \u1000\u102f\u101c [kula] (n<\/b>) race; noble race; house; parent’s house; male donor or layman.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (5) Judson, A., Burmese-English Dictionary, \u00a0Baptist Press, Rangoon, edited 1953. p. 173 (First Edition: 1836).<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 (Pali) n, a race \u1021\u1019\u103a\u102d\u1033\u1038 ; one whose race is distinctly marked, a caste person; a native of any country west of Burma; a foreigner, ……..etc.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      In fact, the Burmese use the Pali word Kula <\/i>(meaning holy, great, noble, distinguished etc.) in various forms. The following are some examples:<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (a) \u1000\u102f\u101c\u101e\u1019\u1002\u1062 (Kula Thamagga)<\/p>\n

      great\/noble organization<\/p>\n

      United Nations<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (b) \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1021\u102f\u1010\u1039 (\u1000\u102f\u101c \u1029\u1092) (Kula Oatta)<\/p>\n

      distinguished camel<\/p>\n

      camel, the distinguished animal<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (c) \u1000\u102f\u101c\u1000\u102f\u1019\u107c\u102c\u101b\u102e (Kula Kumari)<\/p>\n

      noble young lady<\/p>\n

      young lady of the noble race<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (d) \u1000\u102f\u101c\u1015\u1017\u107a\u1010 (Kula Pabbata)<\/p>\n

      great\/distinguished mountain<\/p>\n

      mountain range<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      The second hypothesis <\/b>states that the word \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 Kala<\/i> (Kula) was derived from the original Mon word Gla<\/i>, meaning people who live in houses made of earth.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      Here are some sources which support this hypothesis:<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (1) Yule, Henry, Col. and Burnell, A. C., \u00a0Hobson-Jobson, Calcutta, 1990 (First Edition 1886), p. 495.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      “The true history of the word has for the first time been traced by Prof. Forchhammer to Gola<\/i>, the name applied in old Pegu inscriptions to the Indian Buddhist immigrants, a name which he identifies with Sanskrit Gauda<\/i>, the ancient name of northern Bengal, hence the famous city of Gaur”.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (2) The Kalyani<\/i> Inscription, Pegu, 14. century, written in Mon language.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (Translation<\/b>): \u00a0“The heroes Sona and Uttara were sent to Rama\u00f1a, which forms a part of Suvannabhumi, to propagate the holy faith …….. This town is called to this day Gola<\/b> mattikanagara<\/i>, because of the many houses it contained made of earth in the fashion of houses of the Gola<\/b> people.”<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (3) U Wun, \u1010\u1000\u1060\u101e\u102d\u102f\u101c\u1039 \u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u1021\u1018\u102d\u1013\u102c\u1014\u1039\u104a \u1021\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1038 \u1041\u104b \u00a0(The University Burmese-Burmese Dictionary), Rangoon, 1952, vol.1, p. 22.<\/p>\n

      \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 – \u1014\u1036 \u1041\u104a \u1021\u102d\u108f\u102d\u1075\u101a\u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u101e\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u104a \u00a0\u00a0\u1042\u104b \u101e\u102c\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1021\u102c\u1038\u103b\u1016\u1004\u1039\u1037 \u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u108f\u102f\u102d\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u1021\u1031\u1014\u102c\u1000\u1039\u1016\u1000\u1039\u1031\u1012\u101e\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103d\u101c\u102c\u101e\u1030\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u104b \u1014\u101d\u102d – \u00a0\u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u103b\u1001\u102c\u1038\u104c \u103b\u1016\u1005\u1039\u1031\u101e\u102c\u104a \u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u103b\u1001\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103d\u101c\u102c\u1031\u101e\u102c\u104b [ \u1019\u103c\u1014\u1039\u104a \u1002\u101c\u102c\u104b \u1015\u102b\u104a \u00a0\u1000\u102f\u101c]<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      Translation: <\/b>kula; N 1<\/b>. Indians. 2<\/b>. General term for the people who come from west of Burma. ——- adj<\/i><\/b> \u00a0of foreign origin [Mon Gla<\/i>; Pali Kula<\/i>]<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (4) The word for the people from the subcontinent in the Modern Mon language is Gola<\/i>. \u00a0Po Karens named the Indians Kula<\/i>, Sgaw Karens called the Indians Kola<\/i> and the Thai word for Indians is Kal<\/i>.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      The third hypothesis<\/b> claims that the word Kala<\/i> (Kula<\/i>) is the corruption of the word Cola <\/i>\/ Chola<\/i>.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      Here are the sources which support this statement:<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (1) Yule, Henry, Col. and Burnell, A. C., \u00a0Hobson-Jobson, Calcutta, 1990 (First Edition 1886), p. 257.<\/p>\n

      “Chola<\/b>, as the name of Tamil people and their royal dynasty appears as Choda in one of Asoka’s incriptions, and in the Telugu inscriptions of the Chalukya dynasty.”<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (2) Myanmar-English Dictionary, Department of the Myanmar Language Commision, Ministry of Education, Union of Myanmar, “A History of the Myanmar Alphabet, p.iv.<\/p>\n

      “In South India, the Andhra dynasty arose after the dissolution of the Maurya kingdom. \u00a0Then arose such dynasties as Pallava, Kadamba, Calukya, Rashtrakuta and Cola<\/b>. \u00a0During the reign of those dynasties there developed from Brahmi such scripts \u00a0as Pacchimi scripts in the west, Madhya Pradesh script in the middle region and, in the south, such scripts as Telugu, Kanati, academic Grantha, Tamil which are contained in Kadamba, Calukya and Rashtrakuta. \u00a0These Indian scripts descended from Brahmi and spread to Tibet, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia along with Indian beliefs and culture in the period of 100 A.D to 800 A.D and helped in the development of indigenous scripts in those regions “.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      Since the early Indians who came to Southeast Asia by sea route and brought scripts were from Southern India, it is very possible that those people were called Cola <\/i>\/ Chola<\/i> people by the natives. \u00a0So, it cannot be ruled out that Cola <\/i>\/ Chola<\/i> is the origin of the Mon word Gola<\/i>\/Gla<\/i>, the Karen word Kola <\/i>\/ Kula<\/i> and the Burmese word Kala <\/i>\/ Kula<\/i>.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      As I have pointed out from the literature the word Kala <\/i>\u00a0is derived either from the Pali word Kula<\/i> or from the Cola <\/i>\/ Chola<\/i> dynasty of South India, which the Mons adapted to Gola<\/i> or Gla<\/i> and the Burmese in turn pronounced as Kala<\/i>. \u00a0All of the above hypotheses demonstrate that the word Kala<\/i> had and has no negative connotations. \u00a0It could be said to have a harmless or even a positive meaning.<\/p>\n

      The word Kala<\/i> is an old word. \u00a0Even in Pagan Stone Inscriptions (12th to 14th century A.D.) words such as\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1000\u1031\u103b\u1001\u101e\u100a\u1039 (Kala Kachethi<\/i> meaning Indian dancers) \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1015\u101e\u102c\u101e\u100a\u1039 (Kala Pathathi<\/i> meaning Indian drummers) can be detected. \u00a0Temples built in an Indian style are known as \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1031\u1000\u103a\u102c\u1004\u1039\u1038 (Kala Kyaung<\/i> meaning Indian monastery). \u00a0If the word Kala<\/i> were to possess a derogatory meaning, the Burmese would not have named their temples using the prefix Kala<\/i>.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      King Narathu, son of King Alaung Sithu from the Pagan Dynasty, was named\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 \u1000\u103a\u1019\u1004\u1039\u1038 (Kalaja Min<\/i>; the king killed by the Kalas<\/i>) by later historians because he was assassinated by the Indians. \u00a0The Arakanese king\u1014\u101b\u1019\u102d\u1010\u1039\u101c\u103d Nara-meik-hla alais <\/i>\u1019\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1031\u1005\u102c\u1019\u103c\u1014\u1039 Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan \u00a0in Arakanese pronunciation), the last king of the Laungkrat \u00a0\u1031\u101c\u102c\u1004\u1039\u1038\u107e\u1000\u1000\u1039 Dynasty, and who was also the founder of Mrauk U<\/p>\n

      \u1031\u103b\u1019\u102c\u1000\u1039\u1026\u1038 Dynasty in A.D. 1430, was given the pseudonym \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 \u103b\u1015\u100a\u1039\u1031\u101b\u102c\u1000\u1039\u1019\u1004\u1039\u1038 (Kalapyiyauk Min<\/i>, the king who took refuge in the land of Kalas<\/i>) by later historians since he was obliged to take refuge in Bengal in order to escape a Burmese invasion. \u00a0Nobody would have dared to apply such an epithet to their king \u00a0if the word Kala<\/i> were perceived in any way vulgar.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      [Compare here: \u1014\u101b\u101e\u102e\u101f\u1015\u1031\u1010\u1037 King Nara-thiha-patei of Pagan, who was also known as \u00a0\u1010\u101b\u102f\u1010\u1039\u1031\u103b\u1015\u1038\u1019\u1004\u1039\u1038 (Tayok-pyay Min<\/i>, the king who ran away from the Chinese) because he had to leave the capital city, Pagan (Bagan) as a result of the invasion of the Chinese (the armies of Kublai Khan) in A.D. 1287].<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      The name of one of Burma’s most famous historians, who wrote three important chronicles during the Naungyan (Second Ava) Dynasty was \u1026\u1038\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 U Kala. \u00a0If the word Kala<\/i> were to have a derogatory meaning, this famous Burmese historian would certainly have sought to change his name.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      The Burmese, the Mon and the Arakanese, in particular kings, traditionally believed that they were the descendants of the Sakya Sakis<\/i>, the race from which the Lord Buddha came. This means they believed themselves to be descendants of an Indian race. \u00a0In this case, what posible reason that have for degrading or discriminating against the inhabitants of the subcontinent?<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      In the Burmese language, there are many cases where the term Kala <\/i>is used either as prefix or affix to form a new noun by demonstrating that it is of foreign origin, coming, in general, from the countries lying west of Burma, particularaly the Indian subcontinent. The following are some examples.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      Type A (prefix)<\/b><\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (1) \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1005\u1015\u102b\u1038<\/p>\n

      Indian rice\/paddy<\/p>\n

      rice\/paddy of Indian origin<\/p>\n

      wheat<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (2) \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1010\u100a\u1039<\/p>\n

      Indian preserve\/pickle<\/p>\n

      pickle or preserve of fruits\/vegetables in Indian style<\/p>\n

      Chutney or Indian style pickle<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (3) \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1011\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039<\/p>\n

      Indian\/foreigner sit<\/p>\n

      the thing which foreigners use for sitting<\/p>\n

      chair<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (4) \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 \u1015\u1032
      \nIndian bean<\/p>\n

      beans eaten by Indians passionately<\/p>\n

      gram, chick pea<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (5) \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u103b\u1016\u1034<\/p>\n

      Indian white<\/p>\n

      the foreigners who are white<\/p>\n

      Europeans, Caucasian<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      Type B (affix)<\/b><\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (1) \u00a0\u00a0\u1006\u102d\u1010\u1039\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/p>\n

      goat Indian<\/p>\n

      goat of Indian\/foreign origin<\/p>\n

      sheep<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (2) \u00a0\u1012\u1036\u102f\u1038\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/p>\n

      lever Indian\/foreign<\/p>\n

      lever of foreign origin<\/p>\n

      mechanical jack, motor car jack<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (3) \u00a0\u1004\u103d\u1000\u1039\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/p>\n

      bird Indian\/foreign<\/p>\n

      bird of Indian\/foreign origin<\/p>\n

      black-necked stork (Xenorhynchus asiaticus<\/i>)<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (4) \u00a0\u1017\u103c\u1010\u1039\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/p>\n

      bulbul (a kind of small bird) Indian\/foreign<\/p>\n

      bulbul of foreign origin<\/p>\n

      Eurasian jay (Garrulus leucotis<\/i>)<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (5) \u00a0\u1031\u1000\u103a\u1038\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/p>\n

      parrot\/parakeet Indian\/foreign<\/p>\n

      parrot\/parakeet of Indian\/foreign origin<\/p>\n

      slaty-headed parakeet (Psittacula himalayana<\/i>)<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      III. Some examples of the usage of <\/b>Kala<\/i><\/b> in standard literature:<\/b><\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (1) Yaw Atwinwun U Pho Hlaing, \u1025\u1010\u102f\u1031\u1018\u102c\u1007\u1014\u101e\u1002\u1064\u101f\u1000\u103a\u1019\u1039\u1038 (Utu Bawzana Thingaha Kyam), Written in 1876 under King Mindon in the Court of Mandalay. Later, printed in Rangoon 1901, p. 89.<\/p>\n

      \u1021\u1031\u1014\u102c\u1000\u1039\u103b\u1015\u100a\u1039\u101e\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u1000\u102d\u102f \u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u1010\u102d\u102f\u1094\u1000 \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1031\u1001\u105a\u101e\u100a\u1039\u104b<\/p>\n

      Translation:<\/b> \u00a0\u00a0The people from the west are named Kala<\/i> by the Burmese.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (2) Pagan Wunhtaukmin U Tin, \u00a0\u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u1019\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038 \u1021\u102f\u1015\u1039\u1001\u103a\u1033\u1015\u1039\u1015\u1036\u102f\u1005\u102c\u1010\u1019\u1039\u1038 (Myanmar Minmyar Okchokpon Sardan, How Burmese kings administrated<\/i>), \u00a0Rangoon, 1931, pp. 33-35.<\/p>\n

      \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102d\u1033\u1038 \u1046\u1040 \u101b\u103d\u102d\u1031\u107e\u1000\u102c\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1000\u102d\u102f \u00a0—–<\/p>\n

      Translation:<\/b> —–that there are more than 60 Kala<\/i> [Indian] races.<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (3)\u1021\u1031\u101b\u1038\u1031\u1010\u102c\u1039\u1015\u1036\u102f \u1004\u102b\u1038\u1031\u1005\u102c\u1004\u1039\u1010\u1032\u103c (Ah-yedawbon Ngasaung Dwai), Thudhammawaddy Press, Rangoon, 1920, p. 356.<\/p>\n

      \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1015\u1014\u1039\u1038\u1031\u101e\u1038\u107f\u1019\u102d\u1033\u1095\u101e\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038 —–<\/p>\n

      Translation: <\/b>The Kalas<\/i> [Indians] and the Panthays<\/i> [Chinese Muslims] settlers in the town —-)<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (4) Manlei Sayadaw, \u1019\u101f\u102c\u101e\u102f\u1010\u1000\u102c\u101b\u102e \u1019\u102c\u1003\u1031\u1012\u101d\u101c\u1000\u1064\u102c\u101e\u1005\u1039 (Maha Thutakari Magha Dewa Lingathit), Rangoon,1904, (reprinted 1938), p. 37<\/p>\n

      \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 \u1015\u101e\u102e\u1018\u101b\u1004\u1039\u1002\u103a\u102e\u1000 —–<\/p>\n

      Translation:<\/b> The Kalas<\/i> [Indians], Pathis<\/i> [Muslims] and the Bayinjis<\/i> \u00a0[Portuguese \/Catholics] are —<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (5) Taw Sein Ko,\u101c\u108a\u1010\u1039\u1031\u1010\u102c\u1039\u1019\u103d\u1010\u1039\u1010\u1019\u1039\u1038 (Hluttaw Hmattan), Rangoon, 1915, p. 29.<\/p>\n

      \u101e\u1030\u1015\u102f\u1014\u1039\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u1021\u1002\u1064\u101c\u102d\u1015\u1039\u101c\u1030\u1019\u103a\u102d\u1033\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u1010\u102d\u102f\u1094\u1000\u102d\u102f ——-<\/p>\n

      Translation: <\/b>The rebels, the Kalas<\/i> [Indians] and Englishmen —<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      (6)\u1000\u103a\u100a\u1039\u1038\u1000\u1014\u1039\u101b\u103d\u1004\u1039\u1080\u1000\u102e\u1038\u104a \u1021\u1019\u101b\u1015\u1030\u101b\u101e\u102d\u102f\u1094\u1031\u1015\u1038\u1031\u1019\u1010\u1071\u102c\u1005\u102c \u00a0(To Amarapura with love), “Homily Written Letter in a Sympathetic Vein”, of “Kyeegan Shingyi”, a famous Buddhist monk, written \u00a0during his visit in Rangoon).<\/p>\n

      \u1021\u102c\u101b\u1019\u100f\u102e \u1018\u101b\u1004\u1039\u1002\u103a\u102e\u104a \u1000\u1015\u1078\u101c\u102e \u1001\u101c\u102c\u101e\u102e\u104a \u1031\u1007\u102c\u1039\u1002\u103a\u102e \u1000\u101c\u101a\u1039\u104a \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u108f\u103c\u101a\u1039 \u1010\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1019\u101e\u102d\u104a \u1011\u102f\u1015\u1010\u102d\u108f\u103d\u1004\u1039\u1037 ——<\/p>\n

      Translation:<\/b> Armenians, Portuguese, Black Africans, also Tamils and plenty of other Kala <\/i>(Indian) races, I don’t know all of them but some (has turban, beard and moustache) similar to that of the alchemist “Zawgyi”, all kind of foreign sailors (in Rangoon habour) \u00a0——-<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

        \n
      1. Some examples used by respected persons:<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

         <\/p>\n

        (1) General Aung San, the father of Burmese independence:<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        On the 13. July 1947, six days before he was assassinated, General Aung San, the national hero of Burma, gave a speech which in the event turned out to be his last speech. \u00a0In that speech he pointed out that Burmese people were prodigal and wasteful and therefore some import items should be cut after attaining Burmese independence.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        \u1006\u102e\u1000\u102d\u102f \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038\u103b\u1015\u100a\u1039<\/b>\u1000 \u101d\u101a\u1039\u101b\u1010\u101a\u1039\u104a (Hsi ko kala<\/b>pyi ka wei ya tei); which can be roughly translated as “cooking oil is imported from ‘the land of Kala<\/i>‘ [India or the subcontinent]”.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        If the word Kala<\/i> had a vulgar association, General Aung San would not have used it in his speech.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        (2) U Nu, the first prime minister of the Union of Burma:<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        In his famous book \u1004\u102b\u1038\u108f\u103d\u1005\u1039\u101b\u102c\u101e\u102e \u1017\u1019\u102c\u103b\u1015\u100a\u1039 (literally: Burma, during these five years) which was translated by J. S. Furnival as “Burma under the Japanese” \u00a0U Nu wrote on page 17:<\/p>\n

        \u1000\u1014\u1039\u1011\u101b\u102f\u102d\u1000\u1039\u1010\u102c\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b>\u101e\u100a\u1039 \u101e\u1030\u104f\u1021\u101c\u102f\u1015\u1039\u1000\u102d\u102f \u1006\u1000\u1039\u1019\u101c\u102f\u1015\u1039\u1031\u1010\u102c\u1037\u1018\u1032 \u1019\u108f\u1072\u1031\u101c\u1038\u1019\u103d \u1011\u103c\u1000\u1039\u1031\u103b\u1015\u1038\u103b\u1001\u1004\u1039\u1038\u103b\u1016\u1005\u1039\u1031\u101c\u101e\u100a\u1039\u104b<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Translation:<\/b> The Kala<\/i> [Indian] contractor did not want to do his job any more and ran away from Mandalay.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Also on page 205 he wrote:<\/p>\n

        \u1021\u102f\u1015\u1039\u1001\u103a\u1033\u1015\u1039\u1031\u101b\u1038\u1005\u102e\u1005\u106a\u1039\u1019\u1088\u1021\u1016\u1032\u103c\u1095 (Preparatory Committee)\u1000\u102d\u102f\u1016\u1032\u103c\u1095\u107f\u1015\u102e\u1038 \u1010\u101c\u1031\u101c\u102c\u1000\u1039\u101b\u103d\u102d\u1031\u101e\u102c\u1021\u1001\u102b \u1010\u1031\u1014\u1095\u101e\u104c \u101c\u1000\u1061\u100f\u102c \u1016\u1010\u1039\u1010\u1010\u1039\u1031\u101e\u102c \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b> \u1014\u102c\u1019\u100a\u1039\u1080\u1000\u102e\u1038\u1010\u1026\u1038\u1000\u102d\u102f \u101e\u1030\u104f\u1090\u1036\u102f\u1038\u1001\u1014\u1039\u1038\u1021\u1010\u103c\u1004\u1039\u1038\u104c \u1031\u1012\u102b\u1000\u1039\u1010\u102c\u1018\u1031\u1019\u102c\u1039\u101e\u100a\u1039\u1031\u1001\u105a\u104d (\u101e\u1030\u101e\u100a\u1039\u1031\u1001\u103a\u102c\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1038\u104d \u1021\u101e\u1010\u1039\u1001\u1036\u101b\u1019\u100a\u1039\u1031\u101c\u102c\u101f\u102f) \u1010\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1015\u1004\u1039\u1018\u1030\u1038\u104f\u104b<\/p>\n

        Translation:<\/b> One day about a month after the formation of the Preparatory Committee, \u00a0Dr. Ba Maw consulted a famous Kala<\/i> [Indian] palmist in his (prime minister’s) office (as to whether he will be assassinated).<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        (3) U Thein Pe Myint, a well known author, journalist and former general secretary of the Burmese Communist Party:<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        In his famous book \u1018\u1036\u102f\u101d\u102b\u1012\u108f\u103d\u1004\u1039\u1037\u1012\u102d\u102f\u1094\u1017\u1019\u102c (Communism and “We Burmese [Association]”), he wrote on page 170:<\/p>\n

        \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b>\u1006\u1004\u1039\u1038\u101b\u1032\u101e\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u1000\u102c\u1038 \u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u103b\u1015\u100a\u1039\u104c\u101c\u102c\u1031\u101b\u102c\u1000\u1039\u1031\u1014\u1011\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u101b\u1031\u101e\u102c\u1031\u1000\u103a\u1038\u1007\u1030\u1038\u1000\u102d\u102f\u1031\u1019\u1037\u107e\u1000\u101f\u1014\u1039\u1019\u101b\u103d\u102d\u104b \u00a0\u1017\u1019\u102c\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u1000\u102d\u102f\u101b\u1014\u1039\u1019\u1019\u1030\u104b \u1010\u1001\u102b\u1010\u1001\u102b \u1017\u1019\u102c\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u108f\u103d\u1004\u1039\u1037\u1006\u102d\u102f\u1038\u1010\u1030\u1031\u1000\u102c\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1018\u1000\u1039 \u1031\u1006\u102c\u1004\u1039\u101b\u103c\u1000\u1039\u107e\u1000\u1031\u101c\u101e\u100a\u1039\u104b \u1031\u101b\u1014\u1036\u1031\u1001\u103a\u102c\u1004\u1039\u1038 \u1010\u100a\u1004\u1039\u1005\u1031\u101e\u102c\u1031\u101b\u1014\u1036\u1031\u103b\u1019\u101e\u1015\u102d\u1010\u1039\u104c\u104e\u104a \u1021\u103b\u1001\u102c\u1038\u101e\u1015\u102d\u1010\u1039\u1010\u102d\u102f\u1094\u1039 \u104c\u104e\u104a \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b>\u1021\u101c\u102f\u1015\u1039\u101e\u1019\u102c\u1038\u108f\u103d\u1004\u1039\u1037\u1017\u1019\u102c\u1021\u101c\u102f\u1015\u1039\u101e\u1019\u102c\u1038\u101e\u100a\u1039 \u1010\u1015\u1030\u1038\u1010 \u1031\u1015\u102b\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1010\u100a\u1039\u1038\u101b\u103d\u102d\u101e\u100a\u1039\u1019\u103d\u102c\u1011\u1004\u1039\u101b\u103d\u102c\u1038\u104f\u104b<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Translation:<\/b> The poor Kalas<\/i> [Indians] noticed the gratitude (of Burma and the Burmese people) that they could come to Burma, could work there and settle there, so they never troubled any Burmese. \u00a0Some times they showed their solidarity with their Burmese counterparts. \u00a0It was proven in many strikes, such as in the oil field workers’ strikes in Yenangyaung and Syriam that Kala<\/i> [Indian] workers were struggling alongside Burmese workers.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

          \n
        1. \u00a0Some examples from the important documents:<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

           <\/p>\n

          \u1016\u1000\u1039\u1006\u1005\u1039\u1010\u102d\u102f\u1000\u1039\u1016\u103a\u1000\u1039\u1031\u101b\u1038 \u103b\u1015\u100a\u1039\u101e\u1030\u1095\u101c\u103c\u1010\u1039\u1031\u103b\u1019\u102c\u1000\u1039\u1031\u101b\u1038 \u1021\u1016\u103c\u1032\u1095\u1001\u103a\u1033\u1015\u1039\u104f\u1031\u1000\u103a\u100a\u102c\u1005\u102c\u1010\u1019\u1039\u1038 \u1021\u1019\u103d\u1010\u1039 (<\/b>\u1041)<\/b>\u104a \u00a0\u1021\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1012\u1039 (<\/b>\u1042)<\/b>\u104a \u00a0\u1021\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1012\u1039\u1001\u1032\u103c (<\/b>\u100f)<\/b>\u104a \u00a0\u1041\u1049\u1044\u1044 \u1001\u102f\u108f\u103d\u1005\u1039 \u1029\u1002\u102f\u1010\u1039\u101c \u1047 \u101b\u1000\u1039\u104a [Declaration of the Anti Fascist Peoples’ Freedom League, Declaration no. 1, August 7, 1944, Clause 2 (O)], where it was written:3<\/p>\n

          \u1000\u101b\u1004\u1039\u104a \u101b\u103d\u1019\u1039\u1038\u104a \u1031\u1010\u102c\u1004\u1039\u101e\u1030\u104a \u1000\u1001\u103a\u1004\u1039\u104a \u1001\u103a\u1004\u1039\u1038\u104a \u1019\u103c\u1014\u1039\u104a \u1010\u101b\u102f\u1015\u1039\u104a \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b> \u1005\u1031\u101e\u102c \u00a0\u101c\u1030\u1014\u100a\u1039\u1038\u1005\u102f\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u104f \u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1004\u1036\u1031\u101b\u1038\u104a \u1005\u102e\u1038\u1015\u103c\u102c\u1038\u1031\u101b\u1038\u104a \u101c\u1030\u1019\u1088\u1006\u1000\u1039 \u1006\u1036\u1031\u101b\u1038 \u1021\u1001\u103c\u1004\u1039\u1037\u1021\u1031\u101b\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u1000\u102d\u102f \u1021\u1005\u102d\u102f\u1038\u101b\u1000 \u1021\u1011\u1030\u1038 \u1000\u102c\u1000\u103c\u101a\u1039\u1031\u1005\u102c\u1004\u1039\u1037\u1031\u101b\u103d\u102c\u1000\u1039\u1031\u1015\u1038\u103b\u1001\u1004\u1039\u1038\u104b<\/p>\n

          Translation:<\/b> \u00a0The government is obliged to protect the political, economical and social rights of the minority ethnic groups such as Karens, Shans, Palaungs, Taungthus, Kachins, Chins, Mons, Tayok<\/i> [Chinese] and Kalas<\/i> \u00a0[Indians].<\/p>\n

           <\/p>\n

          \u1031\u103b\u1019\u1031\u1021\u102c\u1000\u1039\u1000\u103c\u1014\u1039\u103b\u1019\u1034\u1014\u1005\u1039\u1015\u102b\u1010\u102e\u104f\u1031\u1000\u103a\u100a\u102c\u1001\u103a\u1000\u1039\u104a \u1041\u1049\u1044\u1045\u1001\u102f \u1031\u1016\u1031\u1016\u102c\u1039\u101d\u102b\u101b\u102e\u101c \u1042\u1047 \u101b\u1000\u1039\u104b \u1021\u1001\u100f\u1039\u1038 (\u1046) \u1021\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1012\u1039 (\u1044)\u104a
          \n[Declaration of the Underground Communist Party of Burma, February 27, 1945, Paragraph (6), Clause (4), where it was written:4<\/p>\n

          \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b>\u1005\u1005\u1039\u1010\u1015\u1039\u1000\u102d\u1005\u1065\u104b \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b>\u1005\u1005\u1039\u1010\u1015\u1039\u101e\u100a\u1039 \u1002\u103a\u1015\u1014\u1039\u1005\u1005\u1039\u1010\u1015\u1039\u108f\u103d\u1004\u1039\u1037\u1021\u1010\u1030 \u1006\u102f\u1010\u1039\u1001\u103a\u1004\u1039\u101c\u100a\u1039\u1038\u1006\u102f\u1010\u1039\u1001\u103c\u102b\u101e\u103c\u102c\u1038\u1019\u100a\u1039\u104a \u101e\u102d\u102f\u1094\u1019\u101f\u102f\u1010\u1039 \u1017\u1019\u102c\u103b\u1015\u100a\u1039\u1010\u103c\u1004\u1039 \u1016\u101b\u102d\u102f\u1016\u101b\u1032\u103b\u1016\u1005\u1039\u1001\u103a\u1004\u1039\u101c\u100a\u1039\u1038\u103b\u1016\u1005\u1039\u101e\u103c\u102c\u1038\u101c\u102d\u1019\u1039\u1037\u1019\u100a\u1039\u104a \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b>\u1005\u1005\u1039\u1010\u1015\u1039\u1016\u101b\u102d\u102f\u1016\u101b\u1032\u103b\u1016\u1005\u1039 \u1001\u1032\u1037\u101c\u103d\u103a\u1004\u1039 \u1017\u1019\u102c\u103b\u1015\u100a\u1039\u1010\u103c\u1004\u1039 \u1021\u1013\u102d\u1000\u101b\u102f\u100f\u1039\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038 \u103b\u1016\u1005\u1039\u108f\u102f\u102d\u1004\u1039\u1005\u101b\u102c\u101c\u1019\u1039\u1038\u101b\u103d\u102d\u101e\u100a\u1039\u104b \u00a0\u103b\u1016\u1005\u1039\u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1015\u102b\u101c\u103d\u103a\u1004\u1039 \u1002\u103a\u1015\u1014\u1039\u1000\u102d\u102f\u1031\u1010\u102c\u1039\u101c\u103d\u1014\u1039\u1010\u102d\u102f\u1000\u1039\u1001\u102f\u102d\u1000\u1039\u1031\u101b\u1038\u1010\u103c\u1004\u1039 \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b>\u1005\u1005\u1039\u1010\u1015\u1039\u101e\u100a\u1039 \u1004\u102b\u1010\u102d\u102f\u1094\u108f\u103d\u1004\u1039\u1037\u1021\u1010\u1030 \u1015\u1030\u1038\u1031\u1015\u102b\u1004\u1039\u1038\u101c\u102f\u1015\u1039\u101e\u100a\u1039\u1021\u1011\u102d \u1080\u1000\u102d\u1033\u1038\u1005\u102c\u1038\u107e\u1000\u101b\u1019\u100a\u1039\u104b<\/p>\n

           <\/p>\n

          Translation:<\/b> \u00a0With regard to the Army of the Kalas<\/i> \u00a0[Indians]:5 There are two possibilities: \u00a0the Army of the Kalas<\/i> [Indians] (ie. the Indian National Army lead by Subas Chandra Bose) will either retreat together with the Japanese Army or they will split inside Burma. \u00a0If the Army of the Kalas<\/i> [Indians] should split up, this may lead to riots in Burma. \u00a0If possible, we must try to organize the Army of the Kalas<\/i> [Indians] so that they will join us in the anti-Japanese revolution.<\/p>\n

           <\/p>\n

            \n
          1. Misinterpretations:<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

             <\/p>\n

            (a) created by the “ultra” nationalists:<\/b><\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            During the British colonial period Indian immigration to Burma was sufficiently large in number so that some “ultra” nationalists took to creating a new definition for the word Kala<\/i>. \u00a0Some claimed that the origin of the word Kala<\/i> came from the Burmese verb \u00a0\u1000\u1030\u1038 (ku<\/i>); meaning to cross over, and \u101c\u102c (la<\/i>); meaning to come, which can be translated as “the one who came across the sea”. \u00a0This definition, although harmless, was an enforced Burmanisation. \u00a0Even today, some people use this colloquial explanation. \u00a0However, there is definitely no scholarly basis for this definition.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            If the above were at all plausible, then, by the same token, the Burmese word for Black African, \u1000\u1015\u1078\u101c\u102e Kappali<\/i>, derived from the original Arabic word Kafir<\/i> meaning infidel or non-believer of Islam, could be claimed to derive from the Burmese verb \u1000\u1015\u1039 (kap<\/i>) meaning “to approach” or “to stay near” and the Burmese word \u1015\u101c\u102e (pali<\/i>) which means “to talk in sugar-coated words”. \u00a0In this way, it might be possible to misinterpret the word Kappali<\/i> to mean “he who stays near and uses sugar-coated words”, which is not the case.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            Here I would like to cite Hobson-Jobson<\/i> of Col. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell, page 495 where it was written: \u00a0Kula, Kla, n.p \u00a0Burmese name of a native of Continental India; and hance misapplied also to the English and other Westerns who have come from India to Burma; in fact used generally for a Western foreigner.<\/p>\n

            The origin of the term has been much debated. \u00a0Some have supposed to be connected with the name of the Indian race, the Kols<\/i>; another suggestion has connected it with Kalinga<\/i> (see Kling<\/b>); and a third with the Skt. kula<\/i>, \u2018caste or tribe\u2019; whilst the Burmese popular etymology renders it from ku, \u2018to cross over\u2019 and la, to come, therefore \u2018the people that come across (the sea)\u2019. \u00a0But the true history of the word has for the first time been traced by Prof. Forchhammer to <\/b>Gola<\/i><\/b>, the name applied in old Pegu inscriptions to the Indian Buddhist immigrants<\/b>, a name which he identifies with Sanskrit Gauda<\/i>, the ancient name of northern Bengal, hence the famous city of Gaur (see GOUR<\/b>, c.).<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            14th cent, – \u00a0“The heroes Sona and Uttara were sent to Rama\u00f1a, which forms a part of Suvannabhumi, to propagate the holy faith …….. This town is called to this day Gola<\/b> mattikanagara<\/i>, because of the many houses it contained made of earth in the fashion of houses of the Gola<\/b> people.” \u2013 Inscr. at Kalayani near Pegu<\/i>, in Forschammer<\/i>, ii.5.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            (b) created by the Indian community in Burma:<\/b><\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            Although the word Kala<\/i> has a harmless meaning, the people from the subcontinent do not like to be called Kala<\/i>. \u00a0They feel insulted because the word Kala<\/i> means “coloured” or “blackie” in their Indic languages such as Hindi, Urdu and Bengali. \u00a0Especially, during the colonial era the British colonial masters used to name them \u201cColoured People. \u00a0Therefore, although the Burmese word Kala<\/i> has a harmless meaning whenever they hear the word Kala<\/i> it becomes ‘salt in the wound’ for them. \u00a0In particular, Indians, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis living in Burma often complain to foreigners, especially to non-Burmese Burma Scholars that they feel discriminated by the people of Burma, especially by the Bamas<\/i> (the Burmese), the Rakhines<\/i> (the Arakanese) and the Mons, calling them Kala<\/i> ( meaning “blackie” in their own interpretation). \u00a0Such a misinterpretation was never intended by the people of Burma (the Burmese, Mons, Karens, Shans and Arakanese (Rakhines) etc.), in fact, on reflection some people from Northern India and Pakistan are much fairer in complexion than some people of Burma, especially some Mons, Burmese and Arakanese (Rakhines)!!<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            This reaction on part of the people from the subcontinent living in Burma is, I believe a hypersensitive one and could even be considered as ethnocentric. \u00a0For, it the above argument were true, then the following misinterpretation could occur:<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            (1) The Burmese term for Chinese is Tayok<\/i>. \u00a0This word could be claimed to have its derivation in the Burmese word \u00a0\u1010 \u00a0(ta<\/i>) meaning “one” and the Burmese word \u101a\u102f\u1010\u1039 (yoat<\/i>) which means “to have bad manners”. \u00a0\u00a0So, the word Tayok <\/i>\u00a0will then be misinterpreted to mean “the one with bad manners”, which is not the case. Moreover, the Chinese community in Burma have never complained about this word, instead they are proud to say in Burmese: \u00a0“We are Tayok<\/i>“.<\/p>\n

            (2) The Thais call the Burmese Phama<\/i> in their language. \u00a0The pronunciation Phama<\/i> can be misinterpreted in the Burmese language either as \u1016\u102c\u1019 (Phama: meaning \u00a0“whore”) or\u1016\u102c\u1038\u1019 (Pha’ma: meaning “female frog”) . \u00a0However, the Burmese have never complained about this word!!<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            VII. \u00a0Some scholars (unwittingly) misled by informants:<\/b><\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            (1) Desai, W. S, India and Burma<\/i>, Calcutta, 1954, p. 37-38.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            “Burmans call Indians Kalas<\/i>. \u00a0This term has been interpreted into two different ways. \u00a0Ku <\/i>in Burmese means to cross over; and la<\/i> is to come. So Kala<\/i> is the one who has crossed over and come into the country, that is, a foreigner. \u00a0The other interpretation is that it is the Sanskrit Kula <\/i>meaning clan or caste. \u00a0Hence it is thought that the term was applied to Indians since they observe caste. \u00a0Kalas<\/i> therefore would mean “the caste people”. \u00a0Most probably the first interpretation is the correct one. Kala<\/i> simply means a foreigner. \u00a0Europeans are often called by Burmans Kala<\/i> phyu<\/i>, i.e. white foreigners. \u00a0The term Kala<\/i> has indeed become in Burma a term of reproach and should be banned. \u00a0When the Japanese were in occupation of the country from 1942 to 1945, they forbade the use of this term, substituting Indos<\/i> .”<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            I have underlined Prof. Desai’s above statement since it is incorrect. \u00a0In order to substantiate my critism, I would like to cite some examples from Burmese newspapers pusblished during the Japanese occupation (1942-45). \u00a0See also in Ludu U Hla’s \u101e\u1010\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1005\u102c\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u1031\u103b\u1015\u102c\u103b\u1015\u1010\u1032\u1037\u1005\u1005\u1039\u1021\u1010\u103c\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1017\u1019\u102c\u103b\u1015\u100a\u1039 \u1012\u102f\u1010\u102d\u101a\u1010\u103c\u1032\u104a \u1019\u108f\u1074\u1031\u101c\u1038\u104a \u1041\u1049\u1046\u1048\u104a \u1005\u102c\u1019\u103a\u1000\u1039\u108f\u103d\u102c \u00a0\u1041\u1049\u104a \u1044\u1046\u104a \u1049\u1042\u104a \u1041\u1048\u1046 \u104a \u1042\u1049\u1042\u104a \u1043\u1040\u1048 \u00a0\u00a0\u104b(Burma during the war, as reported in the newspapers, vol. II, Mandalay, 1968 p. 19, 46, 92, 186, 292, 308)<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            (a) \u00a0\u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u1037\u1021\u101c\u1004\u1039\u1038\u101e\u1010\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1005\u102c\u104a \u00a0\u108f\u102d\u102f\u101d\u1004\u1039\u1018\u102c\u101c \u1045 \u101b\u1000\u1039\u104a \u1041\u1049\u1044\u1042 \u1001\u102f\u104a \u107e\u1000\u102c\u101e\u1015\u1031\u1010\u1038\u1031\u1014\u1095\u104a (Myanmaahlin<\/i>, “The New Light of Burma”, November 5, 1942, Thursday).<\/p>\n

            \u108f\u102d\u102f\u101d\u1004\u1039\u1018\u102c\u101c \u1042 \u101b\u1000\u1039\u1031\u1014\u1094 \u1031\u1014\u1095\u101c\u100a\u1039 \u1041 \u1014\u102c\u101b\u102e\u1021\u1001\u103a\u102d\u1014\u1039\u1010\u103c\u1004\u1039 \u1000\u102f\u1014\u1039\u1005\u100a\u1039\u1080\u1000\u102e\u1038\u107e\u1000\u1015\u1039\u1031\u101b\u1038\u1000\u102d\u1005\u1065 \u108f\u103d\u1004\u1039\u1037\u1015\u1010\u1039\u101e\u1000\u1039\u104c \u1021\u1005\u100a\u1039\u1038\u1021\u1031\u101d\u1038\u1010\u101b\u1015\u1039 \u1000\u103a\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1015\u101b\u102c \u101b\u1014\u1039\u1000\u102f\u1014\u1039\u107f\u1019\u102d\u1033\u1095\u101b\u103d\u102d \u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u104a \u1010\u101b\u102f\u1015\u1039\u104a \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b> \u1000\u102f\u1014\u1039\u101e\u100a\u1039\u1080\u1000\u102e\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u104a \u00a0\u1015\u103c\u1032\u1005\u102c\u1038\u1080\u1000\u102e\u1038\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038 \u1010\u1000\u1039\u1031\u101b\u102c\u1000\u1039\u107e\u1000\u101e\u100a\u1039\u1000\u102d\u102f\u1031\u1010\u103c\u1095\u103b\u1019\u1004\u1039 \u101b\u1031\u107e\u1000\u102c\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1038\u104b<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            Translation:<\/b> The meeting for controlling of price and consumer goods was held on the 2nd. of November at 1 pm. \u00a0\u00a0Burmese, Tayok<\/i> (Chinese) and Kala<\/i><\/b> [Indian] merchants\/brokers in Rangoon attended that meeting.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            (b) \u1017\u1019\u102c\u1037\u1031\u1001\u1010\u1039\u101e\u1010\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1005\u102c\u104a \u108f\u102f\u102d\u101d\u1004\u1039\u1018\u102c\u101c\u104a \u1048 \u101b\u1000\u1039\u104a \u1041\u1049\u1044\u1042 \u104a \u1010\u1014\u1002\u1064\u1031\u108f\u103c\u1031\u1014\u1095\u104b (Bamakhit<\/i>, \u00a0“The Burma Times”, November 8. 1942, Sunday):<\/p>\n

            \u1010\u101b\u102f\u1015\u1039\u1000\u103b\u1015\u102c\u1038\u104a \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b>\u1000\u103b\u1015\u102c\u1038 \u1010\u102d\u102f\u1094\u1019\u103d\u102c \u1017\u1019\u102c\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038\u108f\u103d\u1004\u1039\u1037 \u1031\u1014\u101b\u102c\u1010\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1019\u103d\u102c\u101c\u102d\u102f\u101c\u102d\u102f \u101d\u1004\u1039\u1006\u1014\u1039\u1094\u108f\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u1031\u1005\u1000\u102c\u1019\u1030 \u1021\u1002\u1064\u101c\u102d\u1015\u1039\u1000\u103b\u1015\u102c\u1038\u1010\u102d\u102f\u1094\u1019\u103d\u102c \u1001\u103c\u1032\u1001\u1032\u103c\u103b\u1001\u102c\u1038\u103b\u1001\u102c\u1038\u1031\u1014\u1010\u1010\u1039\u104f\u104b<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            Translation:<\/b> Although Tayok<\/i>-hybrids [Sino-Burmese] and Kala<\/i><\/b>-hybrids [Indo-Burmese] have no problems to assimilating into Burmese society, the Anglo-Burmese prefer segregation. They never mix with the natives.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            (c) \u00a0\u1017\u1019\u102c\u1037\u1031\u1001\u1010\u1039\u101e\u1010\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1005\u102c\u104a \u108f\u102f\u102d\u101d\u1004\u1039\u1018\u102c\u101c\u104a \u1042\u1049 \u101b\u1000\u1039\u104a \u1041\u1049\u1044\u1042 \u104a \u1010\u1014\u1002\u1064\u1031\u108f\u103c\u1031\u1014\u1095\u104b \u00a0\u00a0(\u101d\u1014\u1039\u1080\u1000\u102e\u1038\u101e\u1001\u1004\u1039\u1018\u1005\u102d\u1014\u1039\u104f\u1019\u102d\u1014\u1039\u1094\u1001\u103c\u1014\u1039\u1038) (Bamakhit<\/i>, “The Burma Times”, November 29. 1942, Sunday) (The speech of Minister Thakhin Ba Sein)
            \n\u1017\u1019\u102c\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039\u104a \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038<\/b>\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1004\u1039 \u1021\u1005\u101b\u103d\u102d\u1010\u1032\u1037\u101e\u1031\u1018\u1064\u102c\u1031\u1010\u103c\u1000\u102d\u102f \u101e\u100a\u1039\u100c\u102c\u1014\u1000 \u101e\u103c\u102c\u1038\u101c\u102c\u1018\u102d\u102f\u1094 \u1021\u1019\u102d\u1014\u1039\u1094\u1031\u1010\u103c \u1011\u102f\u1010\u1039\u1031\u1015\u1038\u1019\u101a\u1039\u104b<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            Translation: <\/b>\u00a0Soon, our ministry will issue an order so that Burmese and Kala<\/i> [Indian] owned steamers can sail along the rivers.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            (d) \u00a0\u103b\u1019\u1014\u1039\u1019\u102c\u1037\u1021\u101c\u1004\u1039\u1038\u101e\u1010\u1004\u1039\u1038\u1005\u102c\u104a \u1007\u1014\u1039\u1014\u101d\u102b\u101b\u102e\u101c \u1048 \u101b\u1000\u1039\u104a \u1041\u1049\u1044\u1043\u104b (Myanmaahlin<\/i>, “The New Light of Burma”, January 8. 1943)<\/p>\n

            \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 <\/b>\u1012\u102f\u1000\u1061\u101e\u100a\u1039\u1019\u103a\u102c\u1038 \u00a0—–<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            Translation:<\/b> Kala<\/i> [Indian] refugees —–<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            If the usage of the term Kala<\/i> had been banned and substituted by the new terminology Indos<\/i> by the Japanese (as claimed by Prof. Desai), those news papers would have had no other choice but to use the term Indos<\/i> instead of Kala<\/i>, otherwise the editors and reporters might have faced arrest and torture at the hands of the Kempetai<\/i> (Japanese Military Police).<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            (2) Esche, A., W\u00f6rterbuch Burmesisch-Deutsch<\/i> (Burmese-German Dictionary), Leipzig, German Democratic Republic, 1976, p. 40:<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 \u00a0<\/b><P<\/i>> vulg<\/i> Inder m<\/i>; Mann m<\/i> \u00a0aus dem Westen<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            According to Dr. A. Esche, the word \u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 (Kala) came from Pali, meaning Indian or man from the west and it is a vulgar word.<\/b><\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            In the light of Gen. Aung San’s, U Nu’s and U Thein Pe Myint’s usages (mentioned above), users of Dr. Esche’s dictionary could be confused and may think that Gen. Aung San, U Nu and U Thein Pe Myint should be condemned either as racists or as persons with negative attitudes towards people from the subcontinent.6 \u00a0In fact, Gen. Aung San as well as his successor U Nu were very close to fellow Indian politicians including Ghandi, Nehru and Mohamad Ali Jinnah and they respected these Indian leaders. \u00a0Moreover, as a communist, U Thein Pe Myint was very close to his comrades from the Indian Communist Party.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            VIII. Conclusion:<\/b><\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            According to the standard literature, the Burmese word\u1000\u102f\u101c\u102c\u1038 Kala<\/i> (Kula) is the name for a native of the subcontinent, and is a harmless word. \u00a0Misinterpretations of the term were only to evolve only during the colonial era, firstly as a result of overly sensitive Indians employing \u00a0their own interpretations, and secondly by “ultra” nationalists who created wholly new definitions of the term. \u00a0Those incorrect interpretations were then amplified and disseminated by non-Burmese Burma scholars who failed to check with the acknowledged scholars or in standard works on Burmese language and literature.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            I have written this essay in the spirit of the genuine \u1031\u1005\u1010\u1014\u102c (cetana) meaning “good will or good intention” for the sake of all those working in the very small field of “Burma Studies”, in particular for “non-Burmese Burma scholars and students”, since most of the standard works and classical Burmese literature is beyond their reach.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            Moreover, I have also written this article on the basis of the four “Brahma chariya<\/i>” or “the four cardinal virtues or sublime states of mind” \u00a0namely (i) \u00a0\u1031\u1019\u1010\u1071\u102c (metta) “loving-kindness” to all in the small field of “Burma Studies”, (ii) \u1000\u101b\u102f\u100f\u102c (karuna) “compassion or sympathy” for all those who have made misinterpretations unwittingly, (iii) \u00a0\u1019\u102f\u1012\u102d\u1010\u102c (mudita) “rejoicing at some one’s success or prosperity” for their achievements and contributions and (iv) \u1025\u1031\u1015\u1000\u1061\u102c (upekkha) “detachment or indifference or ignorance” for those who are still stubborn and do not want to correct their misinterpretations.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

            Notes:<\/p>\n

            1 U Tin Htway, “Trash from Treasure, In the Case of Judson’s Burmese English Dictionary<\/i>“, in “Tradition and Modernity in Myanmar”, The International Conference on Myanmar, Berlin, 1993.<\/p>\n

            2 See and compare: U Tin Htway, A Glimpse of General Observations on Burmese pum<\/i>, South Asian Digest of Regional Writing, Heidelberg, Vol. 9, pp. 16, 25-27.<\/p>\n

            3 See also Thakhin Tin Mya, Anti-Fascists Revolution, Head Quarter and Ten Divisions<\/i>, (in Burmese), Rangoon, 1968, p. 21.<\/p>\n

            4 Ibid, p. 51.<\/p>\n

            5 Japanese trained Indian National Army (INA) headed by Subas Chandra Bose.<\/p>\n

            6 Dr. Annemarie Esche was the chief supervisor and consultant on Mr. Jens Lorenz’s thesis on Gen. Aung San; \u00a0Dr. Esche and Jens Lorenz translated Gen. Aung San’s speeches from Burmese into German. \u00a0U Thein Pe Myint was a communist who was to become a close friend of both Dr. A. Esche and her husband Dr. Otto Esche, who served as first secretary of the then East German Embassy in Rangoon (1962-66 and 1975-79). \u00a0U Thein Pe Myint’s wife, Daw Khin Kyi Kyi, was also mentioned by Dr. A. Esche as one of the consultants in her foreword to her above-mentioned dictionary. \u00a0One wonders from which informant Dr. A. Esche received her information? \u00a0Certainly, neither from the scholars mentioned in her foreword nor from the standard literature would substantiate such an interpretation. \u00a0One can only assume that she obtained this interpretation either from the Indian (people from the subcontinent) community living in Rangoon or \u00a0some “hearsay scholars”.<\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n

             <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

            Khin Maung Saw – (Mis)Interpretations of Burmese Words: In the case of the term Kala (Kula) \u00a0   Introduction:   “Burma Studies” constitute a relatively small field within the larger field of Southeast Asian Studies. \u00a0In my experience as a…<\/p>\n

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